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to comprehend, or modify the form of the questions. Moreover,
the interviewer’s non-verbal cues, like nodding or smiling while ◆ Interviewer’s verbal
waiting for an answer, can influence respondents and lead to errors and non-verbal cues
in their responses. The interviewer’s approach and appearance
can also impact how participants answer, either encouraging or
discouraging certain types of responses. Additionally, careless
handling and processing of data can further distort the overall
research findings.
d. Tool/instrument

Defects in the instrument itself can cause errors. Flaws can be
in the form of inappropriate words or language used in questions, ◆ Defective
wrong order of questions, improperly designed questionnaires, instrument
not giving enough choices to respondents, also called omission
of response options, which could influence answers and will
make measurement difficult. Defective instrument may lead to
measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is poor
sampling of the universe of items of interest.

e. Situation
In addition to the above four levels, there is another source
of error, namely “circumstantial”. There could be errors due to ◆ Circumstantial error
circumstances such as the presence of someone while answering the
questions that could influence the answers. Another circumstantial
error is the error that could arise if a participant is not trusted, then
he or she might cautiously give responses by suppressing actual
responses.
Researchers should be aware that correct measurement depends
on successfully solving all of the problems listed above. Researcher
should, to the extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or
otherwise deal with all possible sources of error so that the final
results are not affected.
Summarised Overview

This unit dealt with the concept of variables, attributes, process of measurement and
on the errors of measurement. In research, a variable is a symbol to which numbers

or values are assigned. Variables can be classified into various types based on the unit
of measurement, and based on cause and effect relationship. Attributes are a form of
variable that shows the characteristic of an object. It can be the presence or absence
of a particular characteristic. In order to convert concepts into variables it should be
measurable through scales of measurement. Measurement is a procedure for assigning
symbols, letters, or numbers to empirical properties of variables according to rules.
Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, especially when it comes to
qualitative or abstract phenomena. Gaining insights on the concept of measurement is
essential for the researcher to collect accurate and reliable data and draw inference from
them.

SGOU - SLM - MCom Research Methodology 95